Philipp Mayring. Content analysis is possibly the most common and straightforward type of QDA. Ullstrom S. Sachs MA, Hansson J, Ovretveit J, & Brommels M. (2014). Reproducibility: tendency for a group of coders to classify categories membership in the same way. Decide the level of analysis: word, word sense, phrase, sentence, themes. Content Analysis Example X is an advertising company which wants all the TV commercials to be analyzed in respect of their content. Terms may be explicit or implicit. Directly examines communication using text, Allows for both qualitative and quantitative analysis, Provides valuable historical and cultural insights over time, Coded form of the text can be statistically analyzed, Unobtrusive means of analyzing interactions, Provides insight into complex models of human thought and language use, When done well, is considered a relatively “exact” research method, Content analysis is a readily-understood and an inexpensive research method. It has various possible goals: You can analyze communication and social interaction without the direct involvement of participants, so your presence as a researcher doesn’t influence the results. Amy Luo. To illustrate the steps, the two documents compared are Justice Harlan's Dissent in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) and Chief Justice Warren Writing for the Majority in Brown v. Describe attitudinal and behavioral responses to communications. From these results, you conclude that national newspapers present male politicians as more trustworthy than female politicians, and infer that this might have an effect on readers’ perceptions of women in politics. The researcher can code for exactly what he/she wants to code. Next, you need to determine the level at which you will analyze your chosen texts. They can also make inferences about the producers and audience of the texts they analyze. Direction of relationship: the types of relationship that categories exhibit. ; Conceptual Analysis: Read an overview of conceptual analysis and its associated methodology. 15(9): 1277-1288. Download the free trial today! Decide what to do with irrelevant information: should this be ignored (e.g. In this example, we follow a student—Rafael—who develops an interest in political biases on campus. In Please click the checkbox on the left to verify that you are a not a bot. Typically people think of conceptual analysis when they think of content analysis. Content analysis definition is - analysis of the manifest and latent content of a body of communicated material (such as a book or film) through a classification, tabulation, and evaluation of its key symbols and themes in order to ascertain its meaning and probable effect. typos, misspelling). Three criteria comprise the reliability of a content analysis: Stability: the tendency for coders to consistently re-code the same data in the same way over a period of time. “codes”). 23:325-331. The result is the creation of a “concept matrix”, or a group of interrelated co-occurring concepts that would suggest an overall meaning. 20 – June 2000 . Generalizability parallels reliability as much of it depends on the three criteria for reliability. You record the characteristics of each politician mentioned, along with all words and phrases related to trustworthiness that are used to describe them. Have a question about methods? It includes examples and an annotated bibliography. The decision changes the coding process. Reliability: Because of the human nature of researchers, coding errors can never be eliminated but only minimized. by With “trustworthy”, you decide which specific words or phrases related to trustworthiness (e.g. Explicit terms are easy to identify. Content analysis offers insights that help you make decisions about your content more easily—for example, what to prioritize. Cognitive mapping attempts to create a model of the overall meaning of the text such as a graphic map that represents the relationships between concepts. 8. A researcher can code for existence of meanings or words. opinion pieces, political campaign speeches, or marketing copy), The criteria for inclusion (e.g. To begin a conceptual content analysis, first identify the research question and choose a sample or samples for analysis. It is used to evaluate patterns within the content (words, phrases or images) or sources of communication, such as from photographs in newspapers through to political speeches. What level of implication is to be allowed? Validity: Three criteria comprise the validity of a content analysis: Closeness of categories: this can be achieved by utilizing multiple classifiers to arrive at an agreed upon definition of each specific category. In addition, content analysis can be used to make qualitative inferences by analyzing the meaning and semantic relationship of words and concepts. Uses of Content Analysis. The first example is a classic; the other examples are all from recent studies, and you will already be Option A allows for the introduction and analysis of new and important material that could have significant implications to one’s research question. 5. Content analysis is a research technique for systematically analyzing written communication. Suffering in Silence: a qualitative study of second victims of adverse events. These units vary widely depending on the data used, but an example would be the number of positive or negative words used by a mother to describe her child’s behaviour or the number of swear words in a film. Busha, Charles H. and Stephen P. Harter. After decisions of steps 1-4 are complete, a researcher can begin developing rules for translation of text into codes. These are the issues you’ll need to prioritize. Definition 3: “A research technique for the objective, systematic and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication.” (from Berelson, 1952), Identify the intentions, focus or communication trends of an individual, group or institution, Describe attitudinal and behavioral responses to communications, Determine psychological or emotional state of persons or groups, Reveal international differences in communication content, Pre-test and improve an intervention or survey prior to launch, Analyze focus group interviews and open-ended questions to complement quantitative data. Affect extraction: an emotional evaluation of concepts explicit in a text. 63:655-659. For example, “dangerous” vs. “the person is scary” vs. “that person could cause harm to me”. So, it started with dividing the ads between three-day parts and chose three time periods: daytime, evening which is also the prime time and the weekend afternoon. common English words like “the” and “and”), or used to reexamine the coding scheme in the case that it would add to the outcome of coding? Sign of relationship: are concepts positively or negatively related to each other? The parameters in terms of date range, location, etc. 2 ). In both types, you categorize or “code” words, themes, and concepts within the texts and then analyze the results. Interpret results carefully as conceptual content analysis can only quantify the information. Example. He is aware of news media coverage of research suggesting that, overall, higher education faculty are more likely to be liberal than conservative. 5. In both types, you categorize or “code” words, themes, and concepts within the texts and then analyze the results. This problem could throw off one’s results and make any conclusion invalid. Based on your research question, choose the texts that you will analyze. This discussion is intended to assist instructors in carrying out a simple content analysis and is not meant to be a thorough analysis of method- ology. 2. Reveal international differences in communication content. You could use sentiment analysis, for example, to detect disgruntled customers, or an urgency detector to find issues that require urgent action. Next, select text for analysis. This preview box shows you how your page will look in the search results from Google. Two examples in which the content analysis option was used: Examples provided through Colorado State University (2002) Sources. Determine psychological or emotional state of persons or groups. Individual concepts are viewed as having no inherent meaning and rather the meaning is a product of the relationships among concepts. Decide either: A. to allow flexibility to add categories through the coding process, or B. to stick with the pre-defined set of categories. Psychiatric Services. Content analysis can be used to quantify the occurrence of certain words, phrases, subjects or concepts in a set of historical or contemporary texts. Decide on how you will distinguish among concepts: Should text be coded exactly as they appear or coded as the same when they appear in different forms? Typically, researchers start by identifying questions they would like to answer through content analysis. Colorado State University Department of English. This will keep the coding process organized and consistent. July 18, 2019 When done well, content analysis follows a systematic procedure that can easily be replicated by other researchers, yielding results with high reliability. Definition 1: “Any technique for making inferences by systematically and objectively identifying special characteristics of messages.” (from Holsti, 1968). SAGE Publications, 1991. Marketing, human resources, consumer behaviour or even basic human psychology are just some of the examples of research fields that require analysis. A more powerful tool when combined with other research methods such as interviews, observation, and use of archival records. text). These word segments may not merit separate categories, due the implicit meaning of “dangerous”. Holsti (1968) says that content analysis is "any technique for making inferences by systematically and objectively identifying specified … Refer to ‘Method and Madness in the Application of Computer Technology to Qualitative Data Analysis’ listed above in “Textbooks and Chapters” for a discussion of the issue. This can be done manually or aided with computer programs, such as QSR NVivo, Atlas.ti and Diction, which can help speed up the process of counting and categorizing words and phrases. Reduce the text to categories and code for words or patterns. Relational analysis begins like conceptual analysis, where a concept is chosen for examination. Following your coding rules, you examine each newspaper article in your sample. Qualitative Content Analysis: A focus on trustworthiness. Another key benefit that we mentioned earlier is routing queries accurately so they can be dealt with by the most fitting customer support agents. Aspiring to provide guidance and direction to support the novice, a practical example of doing the actual work of content analysis is provided in the following sections. Researchers use content analysis to find out about the purposes, messages, and effects of communication content. What is content analysis and how can you use it in your research? In considering the category “female politician,” you decide which titles will be coded with this category (senator, governor, counselor, mayor). It is very useful for analyzing historical material, especially for documenting trends over time. These examples come from different disciplines and illustrate the wide applicability of QCA. Rolly Constable, Marla Cowell, Sarita Zornek Crawford, David Golden, Jake Hartvigsen, Kathryn Morgan, Anne Mudgett, Kris Parrish, Laura Thomas, Erika Yolanda Thompson, Rosie Turner, and Mike Palmquist. Berelson, Bernard. Conclusions: What level of implication is allowable? Analyzing birthday cards to understand age norms. Visit our COVID-19 Resource Guide for information on the 2020-21 academic year, health advisories, campus services, and more. 16 Examples of Context Analysis posted by John Spacey , February 15, 2017 Context analysis is an examination of the current situation of an organization, team, strategy, program or … You can conduct content analysis at any time, in any location, and at low cost – all you need is access to the appropriate sources. Do conclusions correctly follow the data? In this column, I’ll walk you through a content analysis—and offer tips and tricks along the way that will help make your next content analysis more effective. It is comprehensive, yet succinct. However, the analysis involves exploring the relationships between concepts. Content analysis serves the purpose in qualitative research to enable you to study human behavior indirectly through how people choose to communicate. 2. Some examples of qualitative content analysis Chapter guide In this chapter, some studies where QCA was used will be presented in more detail. newspapers, speeches or websites) and genre (e.g. The researcher conducting a content analysis will use ‘coding units’ in their work. If so, the researchers would choose a data set of advertising—perhaps the scripts for a series of television commercials—to analyze. To conduct content analysis, you systematically collect data from a set of texts, which can be written, oral, or visual: Content analysis can be both quantitative (focused on counting and measuring) and qualitative (focused on interpreting and understanding). Elo S, Kaarianinen M, Kanste O, Polkki R, Utriainen K, & Kyngas H. (2014). Select text for analysis carefully by balancing having enough information for a thorough analysis so results are not limited with having information that is too extensive so that the coding process becomes too arduous and heavy to supply meaningful and worthwhile results. Content Analysis. However, it could be effective at capturing the emotional and psychological state of the speaker or writer of the text. For example, they might want to consider how women are portrayed in advertising. Manually coding large volumes of text is extremely time-consuming, and it can be difficult to automate effectively. June 19, 2020. It is more effective than a review or evaluation. Validity of the coding process is ensured when the researcher is consistent and coherent in their codes, meaning that they follow their translation rules. Researchers can then make inferences about the messages within the texts, the writer(s), the audience, and even the culture and time of surrounding the text. Qualitative Content Analysis. Trends in Content Analysis. Next, the text must be coded into manageable content categories. Coding involves organizing the units of meaning into the previously defined categories. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1980. 3. Is subject to increased error, particularly when relational analysis is used to attain a higher level of interpretation, Is often devoid of theoretical base, or attempts too liberally to draw meaningful inferences about the relationships and impacts implied in a study, Is inherently reductive, particularly when dealing with complex texts, Tends too often to simply consist of word counts, Often disregards the context that produced the text, as well as the state of things after the text is produced, Can be difficult to automate or computerize. Fielding, NG & Lee, RM. You can use content analysis for- Removing subjectivities f… Develop rules for coding your texts. Option B allows the researcher to stay focused and examine the data for specific concepts. is often converted into written words before it is analysed 40(3):279-285. Krippendorff, Klaus. The simplest and most objective form of content analysis considers unambiguous characteristics of the text such as word frequencies, the page area taken by a newspaper column, or the duration of a radio or television program. Three Approaches to Qualitative Content Analysis.Qualitative Health Research. Hope you found this article helpful. You might use statistical analysis to find correlations or trends, discuss your interpretations of what the results mean, and make inferences about the creators, context and audience of the texts. Analyze your results: Draw conclusions and generalizations where possible. Analysis of results is a crucial step in any research or study. This decision of hand vs. computer coding is most relevant for implicit information where category preparation is essential for accurate coding. As an introduction to Content Analysis by Michael Palmquist, this is the main resource on Content Analysis on the Web. When coding is done by hand, a researcher can recognize error far more easily (e.g. Each type of analysis may lead to different results, conclusions, interpretations and meanings. If using computer coding, text could be cleaned of errors to include all available data. Determine the type of analysis: Once the sample has been selected, the researcher needs to determine what types of relationships to examine and the level of analysis: word, word sense, phrase, sentence, themes. (1994-2012). Proximity analysis: an evaluation of the co-occurrence of explicit concepts in the text. Using Computers in Qualitative Research. Generally, 80% is an acceptable margin for reliability. Because this is a very large volume of content, you choose three major national newspapers and sample only Monday and Friday editions. A Basic Content Analysis. Thanks for reading! ‘Method and Madness in the Application of Computer Technology to Qualitative Data Analysis’.). Ethnography, Observational Research, and Narrative Inquiry. vi . content analysis, the basic unit of analysis can be a word, a phrase, a sentence, a paragraph, an article, an image, a video, a MMS, a TV programme etc. Definition of Content Analysis (noun) Systematic analysis of forms of communication to identify and study patterns and themes.Examples of Content Analysis. As an example, researchers can evaluate language used within a news article to search for bias or partiality. In all fields of research, results are either qualitative or quantitative. According to Berelson (1952) content analysis is "a research technique for the objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication." Reveal patterns in communication content Using multiple classifiers, a concept category that may be an explicit variable can be broadened to include synonyms or implicit variables. To begin a relational content analysis, first identify a research question and choose a sample or samples for analysis. Hsieh HF & Shannon SE. If you want to use content analysis in your research, you need to start with a clear, direct research question. Generalizability of the results to a theory: dependent on the clear definitions of concept categories, how they are determined and how reliable they are at measuring the idea one is seeking to measure. A single study may analyze various forms of text in its analysis. You need to decide: If there are only a small amount of texts that meet your criteria, you might analyze all of them. When coding for the existence of a concept, the researcher would count a concept only once if it appeared at least once in the data and no matter how many times it appeared. Perform statistical analyses: explore differences or look for relationships among the identified variables during coding. Abroms LC, Padmanabhan N, Thaweethai L, & Phillips T. (2011). Conceptual analysis determines the existence and frequency of concepts in a text. By reducing the text to categories, the researcher can focus on and code for specific words or patterns that inform the research question. See more. To research media representations of male and female politicians, you decide to analyze news articles and opinion pieces in print newspapers between 2017–2019. Use the input fields to write a custom page Title and Meta description. 4. Instead, it might be about the topics of the photos (from coders ’ descriptions, or a written catalogue), or it … find out about the purposes, messages, and effects of communication content. 2, Art. iPhone Apps for Smoking Cessation: A content analysis. For example, “X implies Y” or “X occurs before Y” or “if X then Y” or if X is the primary motivator of Y. In conceptual analysis, a concept is chosen for examination and the analysis involves quantifying and counting its presence. Is there a difference in how the US media represents male and female politicians in terms of trustworthiness? The broad nature of the field has led to various definitions over the years. • Toconduct a content analysis on any such text, the text is coded, or broken down, into manageable categories on a variety of levels--word, word sense, phrase, sentence, or theme--and then examined using one of content analysis' basic methods: conceptual analysis or relational analysis. Content Analysis Examples The Palmquist, Carley and Dale study, a summary of "Applications of Computer-Aided Text Analysis: Analyzing Literary and Non-Literary Texts" (1997) is an example of two studies that have been conducted using both conceptual and relational analysis. They can also make inferences about the producers and audience of the texts they analyze. Decide how many concepts to code for: develop pre-defined or interactive set of categories or concepts. Colorado State University. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1959. For example  Content Analysis can indicate pertinent features such as comprehensiveness of coverage or the intentions, biases, prejudices, and oversights of authors, publishers, as well as all other persons responsible for the content of materials. The research question must be focused so the concept types are not open to interpretation and can be summarized. Determine what to do with irrelevant, unwanted or unused text: reexamine, ignore, or reassess the coding scheme. Code the relationships: a difference between conceptual and relational analysis is that the statements or relationships between concepts are coded. The information contained in the narrative above draws heavily from and summarizes Michael Palmquist’s excellent resource on Content Analysis but was streamlined for the purpose of doctoral students and junior researchers in epidemiology. There are three subcategories of relational analysis to choose from prior to going on to the general steps. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. Content analysis is a research tool used to determine the presence of certain words, themes, or concepts within some given qualitative data (i.e. Therefore, coding of implicit terms involves using a dictionary or contextual translation rules or both. Available at:http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/guide.cfm?guideid=63. A challenge to this method is that emotions can vary across time, populations, and space. Owen P. (2012).Portrayals of Schizophrenia by Entertainment Media: A Content Analysis of Contemporary Movies. General steps for conducting a relational content analysis: 1. Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on: Focusing on words or phrases in isolation can sometimes be overly reductive, disregarding context, nuance, and ambiguous meanings. To research the importance of employment issues in political campaigns, you could analyze campaign speeches for the frequency of terms such as unemployment, jobs, and work and use statistical analysis to find differences over time or between candidates. Words that imply the concept or words that explicitly state the concept? Revised on QSR NVivo: http://www.qsrinternational.com/products.aspx, Atlas.ti: http://www.atlasti.com/webinars.html, R- RQDA package: http://rqda.r-forge.r-project.org/. By using software, researchers can input categories and have coding done automatically, quickly and efficiently, by the software program. Content analysis can reveal themes, relationships, and more. Basic information about what a content analysis and how to do a content analysis.-- Created using PowToon -- Free sign up at http://www.powtoon.com/ . General steps for conducting a conceptual content analysis: 1. Quantitative content analysis (see also QualContentAnalysis) utilizes a variety of tools and methods to study media content. It will, for sure, be more accurate than the comparison based upon the impressions of any listener. T his guide provides an introduction to content analysis, a research methodology that examines words or phrases within a wide range of texts.. Introduction to Content Analysis: Read about the history and uses of content analysis. Busch C, De Maret P S, Flynn T, Kellum R, Le, Brad Meyers S, Saunders M, White R, and Palmquist M. (2005). Volume 1, No. 4. Identify the intentions, focus or communication trends of an individual, group or institution. (Refer to Chapter by Seidel, J. Research Methods in Librarianship: Techniques and Interpretation.New York: Academic Press, 1980. de Sola Pool, Ithiel. ; Reading men’s fitness magazines to discover patterns in their portrayals of men. When coding for the frequency of a concept, the researcher would count the number of times a concept appears in a text. The results reveal that words and phrases related to trustworthiness appeared in the same sentence as a male politician more frequently than they did in the same sentence as a female politician. Sources of data could be from interviews, open-ended questions, field research notes, conversations, or literally any occurrence of communicative language (such as books, essays, discussions, newspaper headlines, speeches, media, historical documents). MAXQDA allows you to analyse texts, transcriptions, media files, images, PDFs, and more. Understanding the intentions of an individual, group or institution, Identifying propaganda and bias in communication, Revealing differences in communication in different contexts, Analyzing the consequences of communication content, such as the flow of information or audience responses, The medium (e.g. 3. Section IV – Content Analysis Coding Example . Because content analysis can be applied to a broad range of texts, it is used in a variety of fields, including marketing, media studies, anthropology, cognitive science, psychology, and many social science disciplines. GAO Learning Center ⋅ Content Analysis: Principles and Practices . If there is a large volume of texts, you can select a sample. For example; The type of data collected can vary tremendously in this form of research. Content analysis almost always involves some level of subjective interpretation, which can affect the reliability and validity of the results and conclusions. Especially with more conceptual categories, it’s important to clearly define the rules for what will and won’t be included to ensure that all texts are coded consistently. Content Analysis: An Introduction to its Methodology. Content Analysis. Definition 2: “An interpretive and naturalistic approach. MAXQDA is the #1 content analysis software: Easy to use, identical on Windows and Mac, and relied on by thousands of researchers worldwide. Content analysis definition, analysis to determine the meaning, purpose, or effect of any type of communication, as literature, newspapers, or broadcasts, by studying and evaluating the details, innuendoes, and implications of the content, recurrent themes, etc. 6. An example of a conceptual analysis would be to examine several Clinton speeches on health care, made during the 1992 presidential campaign, and code them for the existence of certain words. It has been used to study books, essays, news articles, speeches, pamphlets and other written material. Sage Open. There are two general types of content analysis: conceptual analysis and relational analysis. newspaper articles that mention a particular event, speeches by a certain politician, or websites selling a specific type of product). You go through each text and record all relevant data in the appropriate categories. An educational platform for innovative population health methods, and the social, behavioral, and biological sciences. honest and reliable) will be coded in this category. The main goal is to examine the occurrence of selected terms in the data. A content analysis should include frequency, direction, intensity, and space. This practical example is based on a transcribed interview excerpt that was part of a study that aimed to explore patients’ experiences of being admitted into the emergency centre ( Fig. 8 9. For example, the word “mine,” variously denotes a personal pronoun, an explosive device, and a deep hole in the ground from which ore is extracted. Published on For example, “dangerous” vs. “dangerousness”. For example, if you are doing a content analysis of a photo exhibition, the analysis will probably not be of uninterpreted visual shapes and colours. Qualitative content analysis example To gain a more qualitative understanding of employment issues in political campaigns, you could locate the word unemployment in speeches, identify what other words or phrases appear next to it (such as economy, inequality or laziness ), and analyze the meanings of these relationships to better understand the intentions and targets of different campaigns. (2005). This is basically a process of selective reduction. Typically, general trends and patterns can be identified. Text is defined as a string of words called a “window” that is scanned for the co-occurrence of concepts. 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Shows you how your page will look in the same way populations, and the analysis involves quantifying counting.